How many particles are there in the universe?
The excerpt below from the manuscript “A Grand Unification Theory “ speculates that the entire universe and all the laws of physics and chemistry are derived from two basic energy particles.
3) The Universe Two Basic Energy Particles (BEP)
The traditional goal of particle physics has been to identify what appear to be structureless units of matter and force carriers to understand the nature and working of the universe. The expectation is that the smallest units of matter interact in the simplest way; i.e. there is a deep connection between them and the basic force carriers. The joint matter/force nature of the enquiry is perfectly illustrated by Thomson’s discovery of the electron and Maxwell’s theory of the electromagnetic field, which together mark the birth of modern particle physics. This effort has recently culminated in decisive progress: the identification of Subatomic particles such as the quarks and the electrons responsible for the creation of matter, and the gauge bosons (virtual particles) acting as the force carriers.The collective work is called ‘the Standard Model. According to current physics literature, supersymmetry theory suggests the possible existence of undiscovered elementary particle. According to this theory a partner from one group would have an associated partner from the other group. Our formulation below shows that the relationship between the spinners and the strings of energy completely supports this theoretical suggestion. We have proposed the existence of attraction between spinners with left handed helictites and singularities with CW spin and a similar attraction between strings with right handed helictites and singularities ACW spin.
Physicists have been questioning for a long time the possibilities that all subatomic particles could be made of even smaller elementary particles. Such speculations also included the possible existence of unknown elementary particle which could be behind the weird observations made at the quantum level. Our Grand Unification Theory proposes that at the heart of everything in the universe lies only two types of basic energy particles (BEP). Their intrinsic nature and characteristics plus their different combinations and permutations lead to the creation of all the subatomic particles which make up the universe and provide a deeper understanding of the nature.
The BEP account for and fully explain:
- Spacetime. The formation of the fabric of space with its three dimensions plus the continuous snapshots (per cosmic second) of all the Subatomic activities forming the time dimension.
- Universal Constants. All the fundamental physical constant values which are both universal in value and overtime. There are many universal constants like the speed of light, the Planck’s constant, the electric constant, the elementary charge of the electron, the gravitational constant, the coupling constants, the fine-structure constant which characterizes the the electromagnetic interaction, etc.
- Planck Measurements. All the Planck measurements such as the Planck length, Planck time, Planck energy, Planck mass, etc.
- Basic Principles in Nature. The BEP are also responsible for the Pauli exclusion principle, the causality principle, locality principle, etc.
- Laws of Nature. All the laws of physics and chemistry are explained with a deeper understanding of the assumed intrinsic values.
- Conservation Laws. All the Conservation laws which state that a particular measurable property of an isolated physical system doesn’t change as the system evolves over time. The exact conservation laws include conservation of energy, conservation of charge, conservation of linear momentum, conservation of angular momentum. Each of these conservation law is associated with nature and characteristics of the BEP and the presence of symmetry associated with these particles. Other conservation laws like lepton number, baryon number, etc. are not exact as they are not derived directly from the proposed BEP directly.
- Nature of Quantum Fields. The formation and nature of all subatomic particles quantum fields, electromagnetic fields and gravitational fields are explained in term of the BEP.
- Force Carriers. All the force carriers associated with the four forces of nature are derived from the characteristics of the BEP.
- Intrinsic Spin. The BEP are the source of all types of spins and momenta. Deeper explanation of these fundamental activities are given.
- Dark Matter. The BEP are behind all the condensed energy which makes up the Dark Matter. They also provide explanations to the perpetual roles of the Dark Matters in the universe.
- Quantum Information Mechanic. The BEP Provide the qubits for the information universe and offer a possible construct of a simulated reality.
The table below suggests how the two BEP form the different types of the subatomic and space particles.
(R-L right handed spin, L-R left handed spin)
The table below table shows the proposed number of spinners associated with the three generations of subatomic particles.
The table below shows the proposed digital codes associated with the Subatomic Particles types.
The Space Particles code type is OOOOOO111111-O1
The Nature and Characteristics of the Two Basic Elementary Energy Particles (BEP):
A ) The Strings of Energy (Quanta)
The strings of energy are responsible for the formation of the bosonic force carriers and the waves functions of all the Subatomic and Particles. Their Nature and key characteristics are listed below:
- The Makeup of a String. Each String of energy is made of a minimum amount of energy level with a given vibration with left handed or right handed helicity (spin). Their number in the universe is conserved, hence the law of energy conservation. A number of these strings couple together form a packet equivalent to the Planck Energy. In their scattered state, with 12 singularities, they form the foam-like bubbles we are identifying as the space particles which make up the fabric of space.
- Wave Particles Duality. Each string is in a continuous state of a given Planck vibration moving at the speed of light. A combination of these strings explains the wave-particle duality exhibited by all the force carriers and fermion particles. Their different combinations and permutations create the different vibrations associated with the photons and all other Subatomic particles.
- Planck Values. A packet of minimum energy strings forms the basis for the calculation of Planck energy, Planck mass, Planck length and Planck time.
- Intrinsic Spin Types. Each String has a predetermined helicity (spin): left-handed (L-R) or right-handed (R-L), known as ½ spin. One essential parameter for classification of Subatomic particles is their "spin" or intrinsic angular momentum. Strings with L-R helicity get attracted to singularities with net CW spin, and strings with R-L helicity get attracted to singularities net ACW spin. This is in line with the supersymmetry theory which suggests the possible existence of undiscovered elementary particle. According to this theory a partner from one group would have an associated partner from the other group.
- Quantum Numbers. The number of strings and their helicities determine many of the quantum numbers of the Subatomic Particles.
-Spin is quantized. Spin is a quantized vector quantity since it is generated by quantized strings of energy. The SI unit of spin is the (N·m·s) or (kg·m2·s−1), just as with classical angular momentum. In practice, spin is given a dimensionless spin quantum number by dividing the spin angular momentum by the reduced Planck constant ħ, which has the same units of angular momentum, although this is not the full computation of this value. As the name suggests, spin was originally conceived as the rotation of a particle around some axis.
- Intrinsic Spin. Spin of a string of energy cannot be made faster or slower nor its helicity can be changed, however its vector direction only can be changed. This explains why electron intrinsic spin doesn’t change, yet it has up and down directional spin. The manipulation of the vector direction of the electrons’ spin is key to the creation of magnets when all the unpaired ones in an iron bar are made to synchronize the direction of their spin.
- Locality and Causality Medium. We speculate that the loose (unpacked and uncoupled) strings of energy which form the foam-like bubbles of the fabric of space provide the medium for the working of the locality and causality principles
- Digital Information. The strings two types of spins provide the bits for the digital information required for the working of the information universe.
- Information Carriers. A cluster of strings with both helicities form the photons which act as the information carrier. Each photons is made of billions of zeros and ones forming a digital value transmitted at the speed of light. This Characteristic enables the photons to act as information carriers.
B) The Singularities (Spinners).
In this manuscript we are proposing the existence of the elusive Singularities spinning clockwise (CW) and anti clockwise ACW) at the speed of light, to be found at the nuclei of all Fermions and Space particles. Most of the conundrums in physics emanate from their absence in all the quantum models and theories dealing with the working of the universe.These Spinning dot-like Particles are responsible for the electric charge of the subatomic particles. As there are equal number of each type of singularities, this makes the universe neutrally charged.
The Nature and Characteristics of Spinners (Singularities):
- The Nature of the Spinners. The spinners are dot-like energy Particles. They spin around their axis and their existence can only be inferred from their activities as they are very much smaller than Planck measurements.They spin either clockwise (positive charge) or anti clockwise (negative charge). Physicists use the arbitrary terms “negative” or “positive” charges to indicate the existence of two opposite states associated with their intrinsic static electric attraction and repulsion. A more appropriate descriptive terminology could be CW or ACW spin attraction and repulsion. However, for convenience we would use both terms in this manuscript. The spin of the singularities create the magnetic moments of the Subatomic particles when their number in the nucleus is uneven. The charge they create determine strength of the electromagnetic interaction between the various fermions’ charged particles.
- Conservation of Charge. The total number of the spinners in a system and the directions of their spins are conserved. The spinners in the universe are divided equally between those spinning clockwise and those spinning anti clockwise
- The Spinners are Social. The spinners are always found in the company of other spinners and always found in group of 6 or multiple thereof (as in the case of the SP or the second and third generations fermion Particles). The number “Six” is the unit of measurement when it comes to the spinners. It is the only number that is both the sum and the product of their consecutive positive numbers (1,2,3). So the electron charge of -1 means it has 6 anti clockwise spinners. The up quarks +⅔ charge means it has 5 cloak wise and 1 anti clockwise spinners ((+5-1)/6=+⅔).
- Attraction and Repulsion Forces. The spinners are in continuous motions due to their intrinsic attraction and repulsion which result from their spins. The sum of the CW and ACW spins of the singularities give the particles their net electric charge strength known as the particle electric constant force (commonly called vacuum permittivity or permittivity of free space).
- Particles with Zero Charge. The Neutrinos and Antineutrinos have zero charges (as each has three CW and three ACW spinners) and display almost zero mass, as they don’t interact with the neutrally charged space particles. We speculate that their energy clouds are continuously in collapsed states, except when they temporarily participate in forming the Z +/ - gauge bosons. This is why neutrinos move at near the speed of light and very difficult to detect. The only difference between the two types of neutrinos is the different intrinsic helicities (spin) of the strings of energy forming their energy clouds. The suggestion of possible oscillation of a neutrino to become antineutrino and vice versa, could mean that they exchange their helictites (as they move throughout space) by swapping their strings of energy with some of those which makeup the foam-like bubbles of the fabric of space (the condensate).
- Creation of Volume and Mass. The spinners interactions and the wave functions they drive as the interact with the space field lead to the formation of the quantum fields responsible for the formation of the fermion particles’ spatial volume, relativistic mass and gravity. Their existence is behind the Pauli exclusion principle.
- Spin Networks.The spinners of the space particles lead to the creation of network of loops called spin networks. Due to the presence of both types of the spinners in equal number, the energy strings form the foam-like bubbles Structure. Only when the fabric of space get distorted in the process of creating mass some of the strings get coupled together (due to their relative proximity) leading to the formation of the gravitons.
- Digital Information. The direction of the singularities’ spin represent bits (the zeros and ones) used by the universe digital information to determine the type of Subatomic particles. They play key role in giving the Subatomic Particles their digital code types as shown in the table above. They are also very important in determining other aspects of the Subatomic Particles Quantum state.
- Spinners’ motion reset. The spinners reset their interaction with each other by getting closer together to reboot their activities in readiness to restart another set of interactions as part of the universe symmetry conservation. The act of reset means they cluster very close together to restart a new set of motions. The reset leads to the collapse of the wave function. This is a key error correction process of the universe information.
C) Other Characteristics of the BEP
- Rotational Angular Momentum. The spinners of the fermion particles act as the engines for the rotational angular momentum of their energy strings. This explains the reason for the prominence of the constant value of π “pi” in physics. This value is equal the circumference of a circle divided by its diameter (equal 22/7). It is also equal to the sum of (1/n2) /6, where the value of (n) ranges from 1 to infinity. Here again we see the relevance of the number “6”, since it is the unit of measurement used in the construction of the universe. The laws of physics are mostly derived from the maths associated with the spinning and rotational angular momentum of the BEP. Area of a circle (r2*π) is what probably give rise to the repeated appearance of C2 in many of physics’ equations . The circumference of a circle is =2r *π and this explains the relationship between h (the Planck constant associated with the photons which have linear angular momentum) and the reduced Planck constant (ℏ) which is associated with the rotational angular momentum of the fermion particles. h= 2πℏ
- Formation of Waves Functions and the Measurement Problem. The spinners number and type determine the geometry of the waves functions of all the fermion particles. For example, the 3 quarks with their non-integer charges are driven by the spinners in a boomerang momentum leading to their interaction with each other and with the Space Particles. This lead to the formation of the confinements associated with the creation of the additional 6/7 micro dimensions. The electron’s whirling like waves functions and its collapse are all determined by the positions of the spinners in its nuclei. According to current understanding of the quantum world, when a fermion particle propagating through spacetime to get to where it’s ultimately going to be detected, it does so with a probabilistic wave-like characteristic. This suggests the existence of a type of force causing a wave-like interference as it move to its destination. It implies as if there's no one single path the particle is following with absolute certainty. The observers can only know its momentum or position with absolute certainty as these waves functions are driven by the unacknowledged existence of the spinners which form the fermion particles’ nuclei. Once the maths of the waves functions incorporate the motion of the spinners the measurement problem would cease to be a problem.
It is also observed that the act of measurement leads to the collapse of the waves functions and this has been regarded as another conundrum in the quantum world. Here again the singularities come to the rescue, once we recognize that the collapse is due to resetting the activities of the spinners.
- Creation of Gravitons. The uncoupled Strings of Energy of both helicities form the foams-like pubble shaped Space Particles which make up the spinning loops of the fabric of space. The uncoupled Strings form the foam-like Structure, due to the relatively stronger attraction of the static electric force relative to the coupling attraction of the strings with different helictites. However when the quantum fields responsible for the manifestation of Subatomic particles get created, the associated distortions in the fabric of space lead to the creation of the additional 6/7 micro dimensions. This in turn leads to some strings of different helictites to get relatively close together giving them sufficient intrinsic coupling attraction to overcome the stronger static electric attraction. The result is the creation of the gravitons. The greater the mass, the greater the distortion in the fabric of space and therefore the greater the number of gravitons.
- Symmetry: According to current physics’ literature, supersymmetry theory suggests the possible existence of undiscovered elementary particle. According to this theory a partner from one group would have an associated partner from the other group. We have suggested above that a relationship exist between the spinners and the strings of energy in line with the supersymmetry theoretical formulation . We have proposed the existence of an attraction between spinners with left handed helictites and singularities spinning CW and similar attraction between strings with right handed helictites and singularities spinning ACW
Each common fermion particle has six spinners and strings of energy with helicity determined by the net charge of spinners, hence their half spin. On the other hand the bosonic particles have no singularities which make the coupling attraction dominant, leading the creation of particles from strings with both heicities.
Conservation of symmetry is key to the working of the universe at the quantum field levels. The two basic energy particles are the source for the various gauge fields and they are the reasons for Gauge Symmetry. The transformation or interaction of different vector quantum fields are bound by the conservation of the groups symmetry generated by the BEP. The flavor changes within the confinements of the protons and neutrons are such example. The conservation of groups symmetry is derived from the conservation of helictites and charge.
Spontaneous symmetry breaking describes a systems where the equations of motion obey symmetries, but the lowest-energy vacuum solutions do not exhibit that same symmetry. When the system goes to one of those vacuum solutions, the symmetry is broken for perturbations around that vacuum even though the entire Lagrangian retains that symmetry. We speculate that such cases arise due to the non recognition of the presence of the spinners by physicists to predict the momentum and position of the particles simultaneously. This is similar to the measurement problem.
- Particles Interaction. When two particles interact, they immediately share the same spacetime codes to ensure that the universe total quantum symmetry is conserved. The act of entanglement is nature’s way of ensuring an immediate correction of any breach of this principle. The word “immediate” here means that nature would not wait for the information to pass from one particle to the other at the speed of light. This is too slow for large distances and therefore it must mean that some other mechanism is at work to explain the working of the universe.
- Spin. Spin is explained using the two BEP. For example the spin of an electron never changes, and it has only two possible orientations, termed as up and down spins. Furthermore, spin is quantized, meaning that only certain discrete spins are allowed. This is supported by our proposal that the waves functions are formed from quantized strings of energy. In quantum mechanics, angular momenta are discrete, quantized in units of “Reduced Planck's constant” divided by 2. This is again in line with our postulation of the spins of the fermion particles are reflection of strings of energy with one type of helicity only.
The spin of Subatomic particles is one of the more challenging aspects of quantum mechanics. For example spin is an essential property influencing the ordering of electrons and nuclei in atoms and molecules, giving it great physical significance in chemistry and solid-state physics. Spin is likewise an essential consideration in all interactions among subatomic particles, whether in high-energy particle beams or low-temperature fluids.
Spin of planets and all composite objects such as atoms, atomic nuclei and protons are the sum of the spins and the orbital angular momenta of all their elementary particles.
Each type of the most common fermion particle is made of energy strings of one helicity only and always found to orbit a nucleus made of six singularities. This is why all fermion particles have ½ spin. The existence of spin angular momentum is inferred from experiments, such as the Stern–Gerlach experiment, in which particles are observed to possess angular momentum that cannot be accounted for by orbital angular momentum alone. This is what make all similar Subatomic particles with the same electric charge to exhibit the same magnitude of intrinsic spin which is indicated by assigning different particles their specific spin quantum number. The bosonic particles (the force carriers like the Photons, Gluons and Gravitons) have integer spin as they are made of coupled strings of both helicities. This postulation is in line with the physicists believe that the wavefunction is associated with any fermion particle and its corresponding antiparticle must be antisymmetric while the wavefunction for any collection of bosons is symmetric. This also confirms our postulation that the strings of energy are either left handed or right handed and they are found either in a single state as in fermions or coupled in both states as in all bosonic particles.
- Magnetic Moment. In addition to the angular momentum, the fundamental particles also have a magnetic moment associated with them, which is to say they behave like tiny little bar magnets with a north and south pole. This is what one would expect for a spinning ball of charge, but going through the math, one finds that it can’t possibly work unless one accepts the presence of the proposed spinners (at the particles nuclei) which are responsible for the creation of the charge.
Currently physicists struggle to explain the magnetic moment of electrons as being the result the motion of its intrinsic up and down spin. Based on its observed magnetic moment, the electron should spin at much faster than the speed of light or being a much bigger point-like particle. Both of these requirements do contradict reality. The current explanation of the magnetic moment of an electron is caused by its intrinsic properties of spin and electric charge. This means that physicists are saying, “just get on with the calculation and forget about where the intrinsic properties come from”. According to our formulation, the proposed spinning 6 singularities in the electron nucleus are behind these intrinsic properties, hence the magnetic moment which can’t be explained by its known ½ spin.
- The Space Particles. The two BEP are also responsible for the all the energy that exists in what is regarded as the vacuum of space. The BEP are responsible for the various fundamental fields, such as the electromagnetic and gravitational fields which are quantized at each and every point in space. This must mean that all "fields" are filled with vibrating spinners and strings which form the unified field, and the strength of any quantum field can be measured by the displacement of the spinners from their rest position. At the most basic level, a field at each point in space is a simple collection of the spinning singularities and the vibrating strings of energy. Excitations of different fields correspond to the type of interactions with the various Subatomic particles. This must mean that the vacuum has all of the properties that a particle may have: spin, energy, polarization, etc. On average, most of these properties cancel out at rest state, due to the equal number evenly distribution the singularities of both types of spin (giving the SP their zero charge), and the equal number of evenly distribution uncoupled left handed and right handed strings of energy (giving the SP their zero spin number). This leads to the perception that space is an empty vacuum.
- Dark Energy. The spinners and the strings of energy in their collapsed condensed states form all the Dark Matters in the universe. The condensed BEP create a very strong gravitational field due the high level of distortion they generate in the fabric of space. The Dark Matters act as cosmic vacuum cleaner attracting all BEP that falls within their gravitational field. Some strings of energy manage to escape as Hawking radiation.
- Quantum Information Mechanics. A combination of strings and spinners form specific qubits. The Nature and Characteristics of the BEP support the theory of “quantum information mechanics” which requires the presence of tools to create the hardware (quantum processing units) and software (laws of physics and chemistry) for the simulated reality. Quantum Information is information that is held in a quantum system in the form of qubits. The various Subatomic particles represent the specific systems’ qubits as they are made of a predesigned collection of bits represented by the BEP. The conundrum known as “observation leads to the collapse of waves functions” due to erasing the state of entanglement (as we have speculated). In reality it is a type of “Quantum Error Correction” to protect information from decoherence and other quantum noise. This postulation is similar to the living cells acting as the mechanism for implementing the instructions issued by the DNA and transmitted for action by the RNA. The error correction is achieved by the newly discovered mechanism known as RNAi which act as inspector to check the information carried by the RNA before it is passed for implementation by the cell.
-Quantum Mechanics and Quantum Field Theories. Theses are fundamental theories in modern physics which describes activities at the smallest scales. One of the key features of the strings with opposite helictites is their intrinsic coupling attraction, which leads to the formation of the force carriers in the absence of the relatively stronger static electric attraction created by the singularities of the fermion particles. The static electric attraction leads to the stretching and decoupling of the strings (which make up the force carriers) between any two interacting quantum fields which make up the fermion particles (with different intrinsic spin). Therefore the two features of decoupling and coupling of the bosonic particles are driven by the static electric attraction of the spinners which lead to their split, and the coupling attraction of the strings of different helictites which lead to their assembly. Another key study under QM is the behaviors of waves functions of the fermion particles which are driven by their singularities. These types of attractions and interactions are key to the understanding of Quantum Mechanics. They account for most of the quantum activities such as the behaviors of the wave functions, the strong force within the confinements, most of the subatomic activities and the photons’ absorption/ emission by the electrons. This postulation explains the deep connection between the fermion particles and the force carriers and why free electrons don’t absorb or emit photons. It also explains why only fermions with asymmetrical intrinsic spin interact with each other and exchange singularities
The creation of quantum fields is also key to the understanding of quantum theory. Different fields are formed due to the ways the particles interact with the Space field at the micro level. Fermion Subatomic particles are manifested due to the interaction between their energy particles and those of the unified field leading to the creation of their specific quantum fields. Electromagnetic and Gravitational fields are other examples of fields creations mediated by the space particles.
Chromodynamics and micro gravity are also integrated in this explanation as we have shown how the virtual force carriers are formed, split and their specific momenta. Subsequent sections of this manuscript provide more details.
One question remains unanswered, what makes the strings of energy and the spinners maintain their intrinsic speed of light. If we assume that the universe is run as a computer simulation, then the answer becomes possible to rationalize
